Hundreds of millions of dollars’ worth of Venezuelan gold brought into the United States remains stuck in storage because refiners are unwilling to handle it, the New York Times reported this week.

The shipments began in March after Singapore-based commodities trader Trafigura struck a deal with Venezuela’s state-owned gold miner Minerven, giving it the right to buy and export gold from a handful of industrial underground mines, the Times found. As part of President Donald Trump’s push to open Venezuela’s mineral sector to American business, Interior Secretary Doug Burgum oversaw the signing, and about $100 million worth of gold was flown to the U.S. within hours.

Some gold entering the supply chain was tied to miners paying protection money to gangs operating around Venezuela’s southern goldfields, the Times reported. To meet international responsible-sourcing standards, refiners must be able to establish that the metal didn’t finance criminal groups, corruption or environmental destruction before processing it.

The findings echo an April investigation that traced illegally mined Colombian gold linked to criminal networks into North American refining channels. The Northern Miner later reported that the Royal Canadian Mint was tightening disclosure after gold connected to the investigation entered its supply chain.

Guarded mines

Trafigura sought to reduce the Venezuela risk by sourcing from two guarded Minerven mines, but shipments began before the company or independent auditors had inspected the operations. Miners interviewed by the Times said some small-scale producers operating on Minerven property surrender part of their gold to the Tren de Guayana gang as protection payments.

The White House has argued that opening Venezuela’s mining sector to Western companies can weaken criminal groups while reducing the country’s economic ties with U.S. adversaries. The administration has continued easing sanctions on mining despite questions from Democratic lawmakers over the Trafigura arrangement.

Other investors have followed. New York-based Heeney Capital and commodities trader Mercuria of Geneva agreed to pursue Venezuelan gold and other mineral exports that they estimated could eventually reach $2.2 billion a year. Heeney has also taken mining and export rights at the state-run El Chocó open pit, where contractors have paid protection money to Tren de Guayana, the Times reported.

The Trafigura gold still hadn’t been resold six months after shipments began, showing that gaining access to Venezuela’s mineral wealth may be easier than proving the resulting bullion is clean enough for Western markets.